Question 1(a) [3 marks]

Discuss characteristics of real time operating system.

Answer:

Table: RTOS Characteristics

Characteristic	Description
Deterministic	Predictable response times
Time Constraints	Hard and soft deadlines
Priority Scheduling	Task execution by priority
Resource Management	Efficient memory and CPU usage

Deterministic behavior: System responds within guaranteed time limits
Multitasking support: Multiple tasks execute concurrently with priority
Interrupt handling: Fast response to external events

Mnemonic: "RTOS Delivers Tasks Properly"

Question 1(b) [4 marks]

Describe AVR I/O port registers.

Answer:

Table: AVR I/O Port Registers

Register	Function	Access
DDRx	Data Direction Register	Read/Write
PORTx	Port Output Register	Read/Write
PINx	Port Input Register	Read Only

DDRx register: Controls pin direction (0=input, 1=output)
PORTx register: Sets output values or enables pull-up resistors
PINx register: Reads current pin states for input operations

Mnemonic: "Direction, Port, Pin - DPP"

Question 1(c) [7 marks]

Compare different AVR microcontrollers and What are the factors to be considered in selecting the microcontroller for embedded system?

Answer:

Table: AVR Microcontroller Comparison

Feature	ATmega8	ATmega32	ATmega128
Flash Memory	8KB	32KB	128KB
SRAM	1KB	2KB	4KB
EEPROM	512B	1KB	4KB
I/O Pins	23	32	53
Timers	3	3	4

Selection Factors:

Processing speed: Clock frequency requirements for application
Memory requirements: Program and data storage needs
I/O requirements: Number of pins needed for interfacing
Power consumption: Battery life considerations for portable devices
Cost factor: Budget constraints and volume requirements
Development tools: Availability of compilers and debuggers

Mnemonic: "Speed, Memory, I/O, Power, Cost, Tools - SMIPCT"

Question 1(c OR) [7 marks]

Draw and explain general block diagram of embedded system.

Answer:

Diagram:

    +------------------+    +------------------+    +------------------+
    |   Input Devices  |    |  Microcontroller |    |  Output Devices  |
    |                  |--->|                  |--->|                  |
    | • Sensors        |    | • CPU            |    | • Actuators      |
    | • Switches       |    | • Memory         |    | • Display        |
    | • Keypad         |    | • I/O Ports      |    | • LEDs           |
    +------------------+    +------------------+    +------------------+
                                      |
                                      v
                            +------------------+
                            |  Power Supply    |
                            |                  |
                            | • Voltage Reg.   |
                            | • Battery        |
                            +------------------+

Components:

Input section: Sensors and switches provide data to system
Processing unit: Microcontroller executes program and controls operations
Output section: Displays results and controls external devices
Power supply: Provides regulated power to all components
Memory: Stores program code and data permanently
Communication: Interfaces with external systems via serial/wireless

Mnemonic: "Input, Process, Output, Power, Memory, Communication - IPOPMC"

Question 2(a) [3 marks]

Compare SRAM with EEPROM of ATMega32.

Answer:

Table: SRAM vs EEPROM Comparison

Parameter	SRAM	EEPROM
Size	2KB	1KB
Volatility	Volatile	Non-volatile
Access Speed	Fast	Slow
Write Cycles	Unlimited	100,000 cycles

Data retention: SRAM loses data on power-off, EEPROM retains data
Usage purpose: SRAM for variables, EEPROM for configuration data

Mnemonic: "SRAM is Fast but Forgets, EEPROM Endures"

Question 2(b) [4 marks]

List Timer/counter 0 operation mode and explain anyone.

Answer:

Table: Timer0 Operation Modes

Mode	Name	Description
0	Normal	Count up to 0xFF, overflow
1	PWM Phase Correct	PWM with phase correction
2	CTC	Clear Timer on Compare
3	Fast PWM	High frequency PWM

Normal Mode Explanation:

Counter operation: Counts from 0x00 to 0xFF continuously
Overflow flag: TOV0 flag set when counter overflows to 0x00
Interrupt generation: Can generate interrupt on overflow condition

Mnemonic: "Normal Counts, PWM Pulses, CTC Clears"

Question 2(c) [7 marks]

With a sketch, identify and write function of each pins of ATmega32.

Answer:

Diagram: ATmega32 Pin Configuration

                    ATmega32
                 +--------------------+
    (XCK/T0) PB0 |1                 40| PA0 (ADC0)
        (T1) PB1 |2                 39| PA1 (ADC1)
 (INT2/AIN0) PB2 |3                 38| PA2 (ADC2)
  (OC0/AIN1) PB3 |4                 37| PA3 (ADC3)
        (SS) PB4 |5                 36| PA4 (ADC4)
      (MOSI) PB5 |6                 35| PA5 (ADC5)
      (MISO) PB6 |7                 34| PA6 (ADC6)
       (SCK) PB7 |8                 33| PA7 (ADC7)
             RST |9                 32| AREF
             VCC |10                31| GND
             GND |11                30| AVCC
           XTAL2 |12                29| PC7 (TOSC2)
           XTAL1 |13                28| PC6 (TOSC1)
       (RXD) PD0 |14                27| PC5 (TDI)
       (TXD) PD1 |15                26| PC4 (TDO)
      (INT0) PD2 |16                25| PC3 (TMS)
      (INT1) PD3 |17                24| PC2 (TCK)
      (OC1B) PD4 |18                23| PC1 (SDA)
      (OC1A) PD5 |19                22| PC0 (SCL)
      (ICP1) PD6 |20                21| PD7 (OC2)
                 +--------------------+

Pin Functions:

Port A: 8-bit ADC input pins (PA0-PA7)
Port B: SPI communication and timer functions
Port C: JTAG interface and I2C communication
Port D: UART communication and external interrupts
Power pins: VCC, GND, AVCC for analog supply
Crystal pins: XTAL1, XTAL2 for external oscillator

Mnemonic: "Analog-A, Bus-B, Communication-C, Data-D"

Question 2(a OR) [3 marks]

Explain data memory organization of ATmega32.

Answer:

Table: ATmega32 Memory Organization

Memory Type	Address Range	Size
Registers	0x00-0x1F	32 bytes
I/O Registers	0x20-0x5F	64 bytes
Internal SRAM	0x60-0x25F	2048 bytes

General purpose registers: R0-R31 for arithmetic operations
I/O memory space: Control registers for peripherals
Internal SRAM: Variable storage during program execution

Mnemonic: "Registers, I/O, SRAM - RIS"

Question 2(b OR) [4 marks]

Draw TIFR and TCCR registers of timer/counter 0.

Answer:

Diagram: Timer0 Registers

TIFR (Timer Interrupt Flag Register)
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| - | - | - | - | - |OCF2|TOV2|TOV0|OCF0|TOV1|OCF1A|ICF1|OCF1B|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  7   6   5   4   3   2   1   0

TCCR0 (Timer/Counter Control Register 0)
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|FOC0|WGM00|COM01|COM00|WGM01| - |CS02|CS01|CS00|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  7   6    5    4    3   2   1   0

Bit Functions:

TOV0: Timer0 overflow flag bit
OCF0: Timer0 output compare match flag
CS02:CS00: Clock select bits for prescaler
WGM01:WGM00: Waveform generation mode bits

Mnemonic: "TIFR shows Flags, TCCR Controls Clock"

Question 2(c OR) [7 marks]

Draw and explain general block diagram of AVR microcontroller.

Answer:

Diagram: AVR Architecture

    +------------------+    +------------------+
    |   Program Memory |    |   Data Memory    |
    |     (Flash)      |    |     (SRAM)       |
    +------------------+    +------------------+
             |                       |
             v                       v
    +----------------------------------------+
    |              CPU Core                  |
    |  +----------+  +----------+            |
    |  |   ALU    |  | Register |            |
    |  |          |  |   File   |            |
    |  +----------+  +----------+            |
    +----------------------------------------+
             |
             v
    +------------------+    +------------------+
    |   I/O Registers  |    |   Peripherals    |
    |                  |    | • Timers         |
    |                  |    | • UART           |
    |                  |    | • ADC            |
    +------------------+    +------------------+

Components:

CPU core: Executes instructions and controls system operation
Program memory: Stores application code in non-volatile flash
Data memory: Temporary storage for variables and stack
ALU: Performs arithmetic and logical operations
Register file: 32 general-purpose working registers
I/O system: Interfaces with external hardware components
Peripherals: Built-in modules like timers, UART, ADC

Mnemonic: "CPU Controls Program, Data, I/O, Peripherals - CPDIP"

Question 3(a) [3 marks]

Write an AVR C program to toggle all the bits of Port B continuously with a 10 ms delay.

Answer:

#include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>

int main()
{
    DDRB = 0xFF;        // Set Port B as output
    
    while(1)
    {
        PORTB = 0xFF;    // Set all bits high
        _delay_ms(10);   // 10ms delay
        PORTB = 0x00;    // Set all bits low  
        _delay_ms(10);   // 10ms delay
    }
}

Key Points:

DDRB = 0xFF: Configures all Port B pins as outputs
PORTB toggle: Alternates between 0xFF and 0x00

Mnemonic: "DDR Direction, PORT Output"

Question 3(b) [4 marks]

Explain function of MAX232.

Answer:

Table: MAX232 Functions

Function	Description
Level Conversion	TTL to RS232 voltage levels
Charge Pump	Generates ±10V from +5V supply
Line Drivers	Two transmit drivers
Line Receivers	Two receive receivers

Voltage conversion: Converts 0-5V TTL to ±12V RS232 levels
Serial communication: Enables microcontroller to communicate with PC
Dual channel: Supports two-way communication simultaneously

Mnemonic: "MAX232 Makes Microcontroller Meet PC"

Question 3(c) [7 marks]

Write AVR C program to toggle all the bits of PORTC continuously with some delay. Use timer 0, mode 0 and no prescalar options to generate delay.

Answer:

#include <avr/io.h>

void timer0_delay()
{
    TCNT0 = 0;          // Initialize counter
    TCCR0 = 0x01;       // No prescaler, normal mode
    while(!(TIFR & (1<<TOV0))); // Wait for overflow
    TIFR |= (1<<TOV0);  // Clear overflow flag
    TCCR0 = 0;          // Stop timer
}

int main()
{
    DDRC = 0xFF;        // Port C as output
    
    while(1)
    {
        PORTC = 0xFF;    // All bits high
        for(int i=0; i<100; i++)
            timer0_delay(); // Multiple delays
            
        PORTC = 0x00;    // All bits low
        for(int i=0; i<100; i++)
            timer0_delay(); // Multiple delays
    }
}

Key Features:

Timer0 normal mode: Counts from 0 to 255 then overflows
No prescaler: Timer runs at system clock speed
Overflow detection: TOV0 flag indicates timer overflow
Delay generation: Multiple timer cycles create visible delay

Mnemonic: "Timer Counts, Overflow Flags, Generate Delays"

Question 3(a OR) [3 marks]

Write AVR C program to store #30h into location 0X011F of EEPROM.

Answer:

#include <avr/io.h>
#include <avr/eeprom.h>

int main()
{
    eeprom_write_byte((uint8_t*)0x011F, 0x30);
    return 0;
}

Alternative Method:

#include <avr/io.h>

int main()
{
    while(EECR & (1<<EEWE));    // Wait for previous write
    EEAR = 0x011F;              // Set address
    EEDR = 0x30;                // Set data
    EECR |= (1<<EEMWE);         // Master write enable
    EECR |= (1<<EEWE);          // Write enable
}

Mnemonic: "Address, Data, Master, Write - ADMW"

Question 3(b OR) [4 marks]

Discuss different data types for programming AVR in C.

Answer:

Table: AVR C Data Types

Data Type	Size	Range
char	1 byte	-128 to 127
unsigned char	1 byte	0 to 255
int	2 bytes	-32768 to 32767
unsigned int	2 bytes	0 to 65535
long	4 bytes	-2³¹ to 2³¹-1
float	4 bytes	IEEE 754 format

Memory efficiency: Choose smallest suitable data type
Unsigned types: Use when negative values not needed
Integer arithmetic: Faster than floating-point operations

Mnemonic: "Choose Correct Size for Memory Efficiency"

Question 3(c OR) [7 marks]

Write AVR C programs for serial data transmission.

Answer:

#include <avr/io.h>

void uart_init(unsigned int baud)
{
    UBRRH = (unsigned char)(baud>>8);
    UBRRL = (unsigned char)baud;
    UCSRB = (1<<TXEN);          // Enable transmitter
    UCSRC = (1<<URSEL)|(3<<UCSZ0); // 8-bit data
}

void uart_transmit(unsigned char data)
{
    while(!(UCSRA & (1<<UDRE))); // Wait for empty buffer
    UDR = data;                  // Send data
}

void uart_send_string(char *str)
{
    while(*str)
    {
        uart_transmit(*str++);
    }
}

int main()
{
    uart_init(51);              // 9600 baud at 8MHz
    
    while(1)
    {
        uart_send_string("Hello World\r\n");
        for(long i=0; i<100000; i++); // Delay
    }
}

Key Components:

Baud rate setting: UBRR registers set communication speed
Transmit enable: TXEN bit enables UART transmitter
Data transmission: UDR register holds data to transmit
Buffer check: UDRE flag indicates transmit buffer empty

Mnemonic: "Init, Enable, Check, Transmit - IECT"

Question 4(a) [3 marks]

Explain ADMUX register.

Answer:

Table: ADMUX Register Bits

Bit	Name	Function
REFS1:0	Reference Select	Voltage reference selection
ADLAR	Left Adjust	Result left adjustment
MUX4:0	Channel Select	ADC input channel selection

Reference voltage: Selects internal/external voltage reference
Result format: ADLAR bit adjusts 10-bit result alignment
Channel selection: MUX bits choose which ADC pin to read

Mnemonic: "Reference, Adjust, Channel - RAC"

Question 4(b) [4 marks]

Draw and explain Interfacing Relay with ATmega32.

Answer:

Diagram: Relay Interfacing

ATmega32                    Relay Circuit
                         
  PA0 ----+                +12V
          |                 |
          R            [Relay Coil]
          |                 |
          |     +-----+     |
          +-----|  T  |-----+
                | NPN |
                +-----+
                  |
                 GND
                 
T = BC547 Transistor
R = 1K Resistor

Components:

Transistor switch: BC547 NPN transistor acts as electronic switch
Base resistor: 1KΩ limits base current from microcontroller
Relay coil: 12V relay operates external high-power devices
Protection diode: Freewheeling diode protects from back EMF

Mnemonic: "Micro Controls Transistor Controls Relay"

Question 4(c) [7 marks]

Draw and explain TWI registers in AVR.

Answer:

Diagram: TWI Register Structure

TWCR (TWI Control Register)
+-----+----+-----+-----+----+----+---+----+
|TWINT|TWEA|TWSTA|TWSTO|TWWC|TWEN| - |TWIE|
+-----+----+-----+-----+----+----+---+----+
 7      6     5     4    3     2   1    0

TWSR (TWI Status Register)  
+----+----+----+----+----+---+-----+-----+
|TWS7|TWS6|TWS5|TWS4|TWS3| - |TWPS1|TWPS0|
+----+----+----+----+----+---+-----+-----+
 7     6     5    4    3   2    1     0

TWDR (TWI Data Register)
+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
|TWD7|TWD6|TWD5|TWD4|TWD3|TWD2|TWD1|TWD0|
+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
 7     6     5    4    3    2    1    0

Register Functions:

TWCR: Controls TWI operation and interrupt handling
TWSR: Provides status information and prescaler setting
TWDR: Holds data for transmission/reception
TWAR: Sets slave address when operating as slave
TWBR: Sets bit rate for TWI communication
TWINT: Interrupt flag cleared by writing 1
Start/Stop: TWSTA and TWSTO control I2C conditions

Mnemonic: "Control, Status, Data, Address, Bit Rate - CSDAB"

Question 4(a OR) [3 marks]

Explain ADCSRA register.

Answer:

Table: ADCSRA Register Bits

Bit	Name	Function
ADEN	ADC Enable	Enables ADC module
ADSC	Start Conversion	Starts ADC conversion
ADATE	Auto Trigger	Enables auto trigger mode
ADIF	Interrupt Flag	ADC conversion complete flag
ADIE	Interrupt Enable	Enables ADC interrupt
ADPS2:0	Prescaler	Sets ADC clock prescaler

ADC control: ADEN enables ADC, ADSC starts conversion
Interrupt system: ADIF flag set when conversion complete

Mnemonic: "Enable, Start, Trigger, Interrupt, Prescale - ESTIP"

Question 4(b OR) [4 marks]

Draw and explain interfacing of LM35 with ATmega32.

Answer:

Diagram: LM35 Interfacing

    LM35                 ATmega32
                         
   +5V ----+              
           |              
         [LM35]          
           |              
   GND ----+              
           |              
   Vout ---+------------- PA0 (ADC0)
                         
   Temperature Sensor
   Output: 10mV/°C

Connection Details:

Power supply: LM35 requires +5V and ground connections
Output voltage: Produces 10mV per degree Celsius
ADC input: Connect LM35 output to ADC channel (PA0)
Temperature calculation: °C = (ADC_Value × 5000mV) / (1024 × 10mV)

Code Example:

float temp = (adc_read() * 5.0 * 100.0) / 1024.0;

Mnemonic: "LM35 gives 10mV per degree"

Question 4(c OR) [7 marks]

Draw and explain interfacing of multiple 7-segment displays using MAX7221 with ATmega32.

Answer:

Diagram: MAX7221 Interfacing

ATmega32                MAX7221              7-Segment Displays

PB5(MOSI) ------------- DIN                   DIG0 ---- Display 1
PB7(SCK)  ------------- CLK                   DIG1 ---- Display 2  
PB4(SS)   ------------- CS                    DIG2 ---- Display 3
                                              DIG3 ---- Display 4
          +5V --------- VCC                   DIG4 ---- Display 5
          GND --------- GND                   DIG5 ---- Display 6
                                              DIG6 ---- Display 7
                        SEGA ---- Common segments
                        SEGB     to all displays
                        SEGC
                        SEGD
                        SEGE
                        SEGF
                        SEGG
                        SEGDP

Features:

SPI communication: Uses serial peripheral interface for control
Multiple displays: Controls up to 8 seven-segment displays
Automatic scanning: MAX7221 handles multiplexing automatically
Brightness control: Software-controlled brightness levels
Decode mode: Built-in BCD to 7-segment decoder
Low component count: Reduces external components needed

Key Registers:

Decode mode register: Enables/disables BCD decoding
Intensity register: Controls display brightness
Scan limit register: Sets number of active displays
Shutdown register: Normal operation or shutdown mode

Mnemonic: "SPI Sends Serial Data to Multiple Displays"

Question 5(a) [3 marks]

Explain SPCR register.

Answer:

Table: SPCR Register Bits

Bit	Name	Function
SPIE	Interrupt Enable	Enables SPI interrupt
SPE	SPI Enable	Enables SPI module
DORD	Data Order	LSB/MSB first selection
MSTR	Master/Slave	Selects master or slave mode
CPOL	Clock Polarity	Clock idle state selection
CPHA	Clock Phase	Clock edge for data sampling
SPR1:0	Clock Rate	SPI clock rate selection

SPI enable: SPE bit must be set to enable SPI functionality
Master mode: MSTR bit determines if device is master or slave

Mnemonic: "Interrupt, Enable, Data, Master, Clock settings - IEDMC"

Question 5(b) [4 marks]

Draw circuit diagram to interface DC motor with ATmega32 using L293D motor driver.

Answer:

Diagram: DC Motor Interfacing

ATmega32              L293D                DC Motor

PA0 ----------- IN1    OUT1 ----------+
PA1 ----------- IN2    OUT2 ----------+    [Motor]
                                      |      M
+5V ----------- VCC1   VCC2 --------- +12V  |
GND ----------- GND    GND  --------- GND   |
PA2 ----------- EN1                         |
                                            |
               Input Logic Table:           |
               IN1  IN2  Motor              |
                0    0   Stop               |
                0    1   CCW                |
                1    0   CW                 |
                1    1   Brake              |

Components:

L293D driver: Provides current amplification for motor control
Power supplies: +5V for logic, +12V for motor power
Control signals: IN1, IN2 determine motor direction
Enable pin: EN1 controls motor on/off and speed (PWM)

Mnemonic: "Logic controls Direction, Enable controls Speed"

Question 5(c) [7 marks]

Explain IoT based Home Automation System.

Answer:

Diagram: IoT Home Automation System

    Internet Cloud
          |
    +----------+
    |  Router  |
    +----------+
          |
    +----------+      +----------+      +----------+
    |   ESP32  |------|ATmega32  |------| Devices  |
    | WiFi MCU |      |Main MCU  |      |• Lights  |
    +----------+      +----------+      |• Fan     |
          |                  |          |• AC      |
    +----------+      +----------+      |• Security|
    |   App    |      | Sensors  |      +----------+
    |Smartphone|      |• Temp    |
    +----------+      |• Motion  |
                      |• LDR     |
                      +----------+

System Components:

Internet connectivity: WiFi module connects system to internet
Mobile application: User interface for remote control and monitoring
Sensor network: Temperature, motion, light sensors for automation
Control devices: Relays control home appliances and lights
Central controller: Microcontroller processes commands and sensor data
Cloud services: Store data and enable remote access

Features:

Remote control: Control appliances from anywhere via internet
Automation: Automatic control based on sensor readings
Energy saving: Smart scheduling reduces power consumption
Security monitoring: Motion sensors and cameras for safety
Data logging: Historical data storage for analysis

Mnemonic: "Internet connects Phones to Home Devices - IPHD"

Question 5(a OR) [3 marks]

Explain SPSR register.

Answer:

Table: SPSR Register Bits

Bit	Name	Function
SPIF	Interrupt Flag	SPI transfer complete flag
WCOL	Write Collision	Data collision error flag
SPI2X	Double Speed	Doubles SPI clock rate

Transfer complete: SPIF flag indicates SPI transmission finished
Collision detection: WCOL flag shows write collision occurred
Speed control: SPI2X doubles communication speed when set

Mnemonic: "Flag, Collision, Speed - FCS"

Question 5(b OR) [4 marks]

Draw and explain pin diagram of L293D motor driver IC.

Answer:

Diagram: L293D Pin Configuration

      L293D (16-pin DIP)
    +--------------------+
EN1 |1                 16| VCC1
IN1 |2                 15| IN4  
OUT1|3                 14| OUT4
GND |4                 13| GND
GND |5                 12| GND
OUT2|6                 11| OUT3
IN2 |7                 10| IN3
VCC2|8                  9| EN2
    +--------------------+

Pin Functions:

Enable pins (EN1, EN2): Control motor on/off and speed via PWM
Input pins (IN1-IN4): Logic inputs from microcontroller
Output pins (OUT1-OUT4): High current outputs to motors
Power supply (VCC1): +5V logic supply for IC operation
Motor supply (VCC2): +12V supply for motor power
Ground pins: Multiple ground connections for heat dissipation

Features:

Dual H-bridge: Can control two DC motors simultaneously
Current capacity: 600mA per channel, 1.2A peak
Protection: Built-in flyback diodes for motor protection

Mnemonic: "Enable, Input, Output, Power - EIOP"

Question 5(c OR) [7 marks]

Explain Motorised Control Robotics System.

Answer:

Diagram: Robotics Control System

    +----------------+      +----------------+      +----------------+
    |   Sensors      |      | Microcontroller|      |   Actuators    |
    |                |----->|                |----->|                |
    | • Ultrasonic   |      | • ATmega32     |      | • DC Motors    |
    | • IR Sensor    |      | • Processing   |      | • Servo Motors |
    | • Gyroscope    |      | • Decision     |      | • Stepper      |
    | • Camera       |      | • Control      |      | • Gripper      |
    +----------------+      +----------------+      +----------------+
             |                        |                        |
             v                        v                        v
    +----------------+      +----------------+      +----------------+
    |  Communication |      |   Power Supply |      |   Feedback     |
    |                |      |                |      |                |
    | • Bluetooth    |      | • Battery      |      | • Encoders     |
    | • WiFi         |      | • Regulators   |      | • Position     |
    | • RF Module    |      | • Protection   |      | • Speed        |
    +----------------+      +----------------+      +----------------+

System Components:

Table: Robotics System Elements

Component	Function	Examples
Sensors	Environment sensing	Ultrasonic, IR, Camera
Controller	Decision making	ATmega32, Arduino
Actuators	Physical movement	Motors, Servos
Communication	Remote control	Bluetooth, WiFi
Power	Energy supply	Battery, Regulators
Feedback	Position sensing	Encoders, Gyroscope

Control Algorithm:

Sense: Collect data from environment using sensors
Process: Analyze sensor data and make decisions
Act: Control motors and actuators based on decisions
Feedback: Monitor actual movement and adjust control
Communicate: Send status and receive commands remotely

Applications:

Autonomous navigation: Robot moves independently using sensors
Object manipulation: Gripper controlled for pick and place tasks
Remote operation: Manual control via wireless communication
Path following: Line following or predetermined route navigation
Obstacle avoidance: Dynamic path planning around obstacles

Programming Structure:

while(1) {
    read_sensors();
    process_data();
    make_decision();
    control_motors();
    check_feedback();
    communicate_status();
}

Mnemonic: "Sense, Process, Act, Feedback, Communicate - SPACF"